Paper 101: Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods

 

Paper 101: Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods

Political Satire and Royal Allegory in John Dryden’s ‘Absalom and Achitophel’

Academic Details :

● Name : Mital R. Helaiya 

● Roll Number : 17

● Enrollment Number : 5108250018

● Semester : 1

● Batch : 2025-26

● E-mail : mitalhelaiya@gmail.com

Assignment Details :

● Paper Name :  Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods
● Paper No : 101

● Paper code : 22392

● Topic :  Political Satire and Royal Allegory in Dryden’s ‘Absalom and   Achitophel’

● Submitted To : Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English,

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University

● Submitted Date : November 10, 2025

The Following Information-numbers are counted using Quillbot:

Images : 2
Words : 2563
Characters :18461
Characters without spaces :15969
Paragraphs : 79
Sentences : 176
Reading time : 10 m 15 s

Table of Contents

Abstract
Keywords
Research Question and Hypothesis
Introduction
Historical and Political Context
Allegory and Royal Figures
Satire as a Political Instrument
Literary Innovation and Form
Themes and Analysis
Conclusion
References

Abstract

John Dryden’s ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ (1681) is a seminal work of Restoration political literature, skillfully blending satire, allegory, and epic poetic form to comment on the political instability of late seventeenth-century England. Through the biblical narrative of King David, his rebellious son Absalom, and the cunning counselor Achitophel, Dryden encodes contemporary political figures—Charles II, the Duke of Monmouth, and the Earl of Shaftesbury—into a rich allegorical framework. This paper argues that Dryden’s employment of satire and allegory not only reinforces royalist ideology but also constitutes a sophisticated literary innovation that engages moral, political, and aesthetic dimensions simultaneously. By analyzing character mapping, satirical devices, the theocratic framework, literary innovation, and thematic content, this study demonstrates how Dryden’s poem operates as both political propaganda and enduring literary achievement.


                                       

Keywords:

John Dryden, ‘Absalom and Achitophel’, political satire, royal allegory, Restoration politics, monarchy, divine right, literary innovation, allegorical mapping, Exclusion Crisis, Restoration literature, heroic couplets, factionalism, moral instruction, literary propaganda.

Research Question:

How does John Dryden employ political satire and royal allegory in ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ to legitimize monarchical authority and critique factional opposition during the Exclusion Crisis of Restoration England?

Hypothesis:

John Dryden’s ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ strategically uses biblical allegory and satirical devices to reinforce the divine right of monarchy, portray political rebellion as morally and socially corrupt, and influence public perception of the Stuart monarchy; consequently, the poem functions as both a literary masterpiece and a vehicle for political propaganda.

Introduction

The Restoration period in England was characterized by political instability, factional tension, and debates surrounding monarchical legitimacy. The return of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 under Charles II provided temporary stability, yet the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) reignited anxieties over the line of succession. The political struggle centered on preventing James II, a Catholic, from ascending to the throne while promoting the Protestant Duke of Monmouth. Within this tense environment, John Dryden composed ‘Absalom and Achitophel’, a poem that uniquely blends biblical allegory with political satire to engage contemporary concerns. Using the story of King David, Absalom, and Achitophel, Dryden allegorizes Charles II as David, Monmouth as Absalom, and Shaftesbury as Achitophel. The poem is not merely a literary exercise but a deliberate instrument of political persuasion. Dryden’s satire critiques factional ambition, upholds monarchical legitimacy, and deploys literary artistry to create a text that is morally instructive, politically compelling, and aesthetically sophisticated.

Historical and Political Context

To fully appreciate Dryden’s work, it is essential to understand the political backdrop of Restoration England. After the fall of the Commonwealth, Charles II’s reign restored the monarchy, but questions of religious and political allegiance persisted. The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) was a political campaign aimed at excluding James II from succession due to his Catholic faith, promoting Monmouth, Charles II’s illegitimate son, as a Protestant alternative. Dryden wrote ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ in response to this crisis, framing the conflict in a biblical allegory that offered both moral and political guidance. By casting political opponents within the figures of Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden not only critiqued their actions but also reinforced the idea that rebellion was inherently immoral and destabilizing. Maresca (1974) emphasizes that understanding the Restoration political environment is crucial to interpreting the poem as an instrument of ideological persuasion, designed to reinforce the legitimacy of the monarchy while warning against factionalism.

The historical context also reflects the tension between monarchy and Parliament. While the Stuart kings claimed divine right, the growing influence of Parliament and public opinion meant that their authority required both legal and moral legitimization. Dryden’s allegorical strategy allows him to negotiate this tension: David as a divinely sanctioned king symbolizes legitimate authority, while Absalom’s rebellion dramatizes the dangers of challenging established power. Thus, the poem functions not only as political commentary but as a reflection on the relationship between divine authority and constitutional realities in Restoration England.

Allegory and Royal Figures

Mapping Characters

Dryden’s allegorical mapping is central to the poem’s political effectiveness. By equating biblical figures with contemporary actors, he creates a layered narrative in which the moral, political, and aesthetic dimensions intersect. David represents Charles II, embodying wisdom, restraint, and divine approval. Monmouth, as Absalom, is youthful, ambitious, and ultimately dangerous to political stability. Shaftesbury, cast as Achitophel, embodies cunning and manipulative counsel that seeks to undermine legitimate authority. Through this allegorical framework, Dryden ensures that his audience interprets political events not merely as temporal occurrences but as morally charged narratives in which rebellion is both sinful and politically irresponsible.

The mapping is deliberate in shaping reader perception. Absalom is depicted sympathetically in certain moments, evoking a sense of tragedy in ambition, yet his rebellion is consistently framed as misguided. Achitophel, in contrast, is depicted with calculated malice, representing the dangers of unethical political counsel. By establishing these contrasts, Dryden not only conveys his royalist ideology but also instructs his audience on the moral and political consequences of loyalty and rebellion.

Theocratic Undertones

Beyond political allegory, Dryden embeds a theocratic framework in the poem, underscoring the divine sanction of monarchy. The king’s authority is not solely a matter of inheritance but a reflection of God’s will. Rebellion, therefore, is sacrilegious as well as politically subversive. Krook (1994) notes that Dryden’s satire operates as constitutional discourse, reinforcing the legitimacy of monarchy through both literary artistry and moral argumentation. The poem’s moral dimension amplifies its political function: by framing rebellion as both unethical and destabilizing, Dryden advances a vision of monarchy that is sacred, legitimate, and socially necessary.

Satire as Political Instrument

Function of Satire

Satire in ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ is a strategic instrument for persuasion. Unlike mere ridicule, Dryden’s satire targets the moral and political deficiencies of his opponents, exposing their folly and ambition. Conlon (1979) argues that the poem’s satire is inseparable from its political argument, as it undermines the credibility of the Whig faction while legitimizing Charles II’s reign. The poem’s sharp wit, irony, and mock-heroic tone highlight the absurdity and danger of rebellion while maintaining literary sophistication.

Techniques and Strategies

Dryden employs multiple strategies to achieve his satirical effect. First, irony is used to contrast the perceived intentions of rebel leaders with their actual outcomes, demonstrating the moral and political consequences of ambition. Second, character contrast emphasizes the distinction between loyalists and rebels, heightening moral clarity. Third, the biblical frame grants the poem moral authority, allowing readers to perceive rebellion as sacrilegious as well as politically harmful. Through these strategies, Dryden transforms satire into a tool of political and ethical instruction, ensuring that the poem operates simultaneously as literature, ideology, and moral guidance.

Literary Innovation and Form

Dryden’s poem is notable for its innovative use of form and genre. Written in heroic couplets, ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ combines the grandeur of epic poetry with the sharpness of satire. The mixture of genres—including epic, satire, and allegory—allows Dryden to address political, moral, and aesthetic concerns simultaneously. Jones (1931) observes that the poem’s formal innovations reinforce its ideological purpose: by blending literary sophistication with political argumentation, Dryden ensures that the poem is compelling on both aesthetic and intellectual levels.

The poem’s structure enables multiple levels of engagement. Readers are invited to appreciate the rhythm, elegance, and wit of the heroic couplets while interpreting allegorical correspondences and satirical targets. This hybrid form exemplifies the Restoration ideal that literature should both delight and instruct, and it demonstrates Dryden’s mastery of integrating content and form to advance political and moral arguments.

Themes and Analysis

Ambition and Power

Ambition lies at the core of ‘Absalom and Achitophel’, functioning as both a personal vice and a political catalyst. Through the character of Absalom, Dryden dramatizes how ambition, when unrestrained by moral or filial duty, becomes a destabilizing force within both the private and public realms. Absalom’s yearning for power is not portrayed as inherently evil—Dryden even acknowledges his virtues and popularity—but rather as tragically misguided when separated from obedience to divine and royal authority. The poet thus constructs ambition as a double-edged quality: one that fuels greatness but also harbors potential for destruction when divorced from moral restraint (Jones 589).

The destructive consequences of ambition are evident in Absalom’s gradual seduction by Achitophel’s counsel. As Krook (1994) notes, Dryden’s treatment of ambition operates within a theocratic framework in which loyalty to the king equates to loyalty to God. Absalom’s fall mirrors the archetypal fall from grace, reflecting the Restoration anxiety that individual desire could unravel the divine and political order. Through this allegory, Dryden invites readers to consider ambition not as heroic aspiration but as moral overreach that threatens social harmony. This theme resonates beyond its political context, serving as a moral allegory for the Restoration audience, many of whom had witnessed the chaos of rebellion during the English Civil War.

Loyalty and Rebellion

In Dryden’s royalist vision, loyalty is the supreme political and moral virtue. The poem consistently contrasts the virtues of loyal obedience with the sins of rebellion. David, as a figure of legitimate kingship, exemplifies patience, mercy, and divine sanction, whereas Absalom’s defiance represents a moral and political rupture. Rebellion, in Dryden’s formulation, is not a matter of policy or party but a transgression against both divine and natural law. The poem’s didactic power lies in how it translates political dissent into moral corruption—an act not merely of disobedience but of sin.

Dryden’s portrayal of rebellion as both seductive and self-destructive reflects his acute understanding of human psychology and political dynamics. The rebels, inspired by Achitophel’s rhetoric, are initially motivated by visions of liberty and reform. Yet, as Conlon (1979) argues, Dryden’s satire exposes how rebellion often cloaks ambition in the guise of virtue. The apparent fight for liberty is revealed to be a struggle for power and personal gain. Thus, Dryden constructs rebellion as an inversion of loyalty: a distorted reflection of the virtues it claims to defend. The poem’s moral universe allows no middle ground—loyalty preserves divine order, while rebellion threatens to plunge society into chaos.

The poem’s emphasis on loyalty also reflects the Restoration context, in which political allegiance was intertwined with religious identity. Supporting the monarchy meant affirming divine order, while rebellion implied sacrilege. By embedding this moral dichotomy within his satire, Dryden reinforces the ideological foundations of monarchy while warning against the moral decay inherent in political opportunism.

Divine Right of Kings

The principle of the “divine right of kings” forms the theological backbone of Absalom and Achitophel. Dryden presents monarchy not as a human institution sustained by political agreement but as a divinely ordained structure essential to social and cosmic order. David’s kingship, like Charles II’s, is portrayed as sanctioned by God; to question it is to challenge divine authority itself. Krook (1994) interprets this aspect of the poem as a defense of theocracy—where God’s will is mediated through the king’s governance. The poem’s theological rhetoric transforms political loyalty into a sacred duty, making rebellion both heretical and irrational.

This belief in divine kingship allows Dryden to merge religious orthodoxy with political conservatism. His vision of governance rejects radical reform and instead promotes harmony through submission to legitimate authority. The poem thus participates in the Restoration project of stabilizing a nation weary from revolution. Through the fusion of religious imagery and political allegory, Dryden elevates the monarchy from a temporal institution to a symbol of divine providence. The “divine right” is not merely a political argument—it is the poem’s moral and aesthetic center.

Furthermore, Dryden’s deployment of this idea reveals his ability to navigate between poetic artifice and political necessity. His endorsement of monarchy is neither naïve nor purely propagandistic; it is a reflection on the fragility of social order in an age when political and religious ideologies collided. The poem’s grandeur and solemnity echo this divine structure, affirming that poetry, like kingship, is ordained to maintain order and moral truth.

Corrupt Counsel

Among the most striking themes of Absalom and Achitophel is the corrupting influence of political counsel, embodied in the figure of Achitophel. As Dryden’s counterpart to the Earl of Shaftesbury, Achitophel represents the archetype of the cunning statesman whose intellect, unrestrained by morality, becomes a weapon of destruction. His eloquence and persuasive power, once virtues, are perverted by self-interest and ambition. Through Achitophel, Dryden demonstrates how intellectual brilliance, when divorced from ethical responsibility, undermines both personal integrity and national stability .

Dryden’s treatment of Achitophel also exposes his concern with the moral dimensions of rhetoric. Achitophel’s persuasive speech exemplifies how language can be manipulated to distort truth and incite rebellion. This concern mirrors the Restoration’s broader anxieties about the power of oratory and pamphleteering in shaping public opinion. By making Achitophel a master rhetorician, Dryden critiques the emerging political culture in which eloquence replaced wisdom, and persuasion supplanted principle.

In contrast, David’s measured words and actions exemplify reason guided by divine wisdom. The juxtaposition between David and Achitophel symbolizes the conflict between moral leadership and manipulative politics. As Maresca (1974) notes, Dryden’s satire operates within a classical moral framework in which virtue is inseparable from moderation, and corruption arises from the excesses of passion and intellect alike. The fall of Achitophel—both literal and moral—serves as a warning that political intelligence without virtue is ultimately self-destructive.

Moral Order and Providence

Underlying all these themes is Dryden’s belief in moral order and divine providence as the ultimate arbiters of human affairs. The poem closes with the reestablishment of harmony, symbolizing not merely political restoration but divine justice. Every act of rebellion leads inevitably to punishment, affirming the Restoration conviction that God’s will governs history. Dryden’s vision, though royalist, is not simply conservative—it affirms a cosmic morality in which virtue is rewarded, vice is exposed, and order triumphs over chaos.

Conclusion

‘Absalom and Achitophel’ demonstrate the power of literature to intervene in political discourse, blending satire, allegory, and literary sophistication. Dryden uses allegorical mapping to encode contemporary political figures, satire to critique rebellion and factional ambition, and formal innovation to enhance both aesthetic and ideological impact. The poem’s enduring significance lies in its demonstration that literary art can function as moral instruction, political persuasion, and aesthetic achievement simultaneously. By defending monarchy, critiquing faction, and innovating poetically, Dryden created a work that continues to illuminate the intersections of politics, morality, and literature in Restoration England.

References

Krook, Anne K. “Satire and the Constitution of Theocracy in ‘Absalom and Achitophel’.” Studies in Philology, vol. 91, no. 3, 1994, pp. 339–358. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4174493.

Maresca, T. E. “The Context of Dryden’s ‘Absalom and Achitophel’.” ELH, vol. 41, no. 3, Autumn 1974, pp. 340–358. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2872590.

Conlon, M. J. “The Passage on Government in Dryden’s ‘Absalom and Achitophel’.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 78, no. 1, 1979, pp. 17–32. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27708426.

Jones, R. F. “The Originality of ‘Absalom and Achitophel’.” PMLA, vol. 46, no. 2, 1931, pp. 587–603. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2913388.